Chaos Theory

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Chaos Theory

The double pendulum phase space plot from the section on the double pendulum shows extremely chaotic behavior. This is indeed a manifestation of what is known as Chaos Theory, a branch of mathematical physics that deals with the behavior of non linear systems (double pendulum, weather, etc). It's a beautiful theory, and worth going into a little.

The term "chaos" was coined by Jim Yorke and Tien-Yien Li in their paper "Period Three Implies Chaos" (American Mathematical Monthly, Vol 82, No. 10, Dec 1975, pp 985-992). That seminal paper started by discussing a recursive equation, which is an equation where the evolution of a variable $x$ depends on successive values. A common instance of such an equation is $$x_{n+1} = x_n\cdot R \cdot (1-x_n)\label{exn}$$ This equation cannot start at $x=0$, or the value of $x$ will never evolve. So as an example, let's set $R=2$ and start with $x_0 = 0.1$. We can then calculate $x_1 = 0.1 \cdot 2 \cdot (1 - 0.1) = 0.18$, and similary $x_2 = 0.2952$, $x_3 = 0.4161...$, $x_4 = 0.4859...$, $x_5 = 0.4996...$, and anything after $x_5$ just gets closer and closer to $0.5$. The sequence therefore converges. The following shows the "trajectory" of the sequence ($x_n$ as a function of $n$), you can change the values and see how it behaves by hitting the "Plot" button:

$x_0$:  $R$: 

The next question you might ask (and just about everyone did!) was how the sequence behaves when you start at some constant (and small) value, like $x_0=0.1$ and change $R$. You can do that by changing the value of $R$ in the above plot, or you can use the slider in the next plot to change the value of $R$ and see the first 100 points of $x_n$, where we have set $x_0=0.1$. Try varying $R$ to the following to see some amazingly interesting characteristics (you can also change the x-axis minimum and maximum to see things more clearly, just change the values in the text windows below and hit return)

$R = $
Log? Plot x-axis min: Plot x-axis max:


The above plot uses an initial value of $x_1 = 0.1$, and shows that for values of $R\gt\sim 3.5$, the system as described by equation $\ref{exn}$ is extremely non-linear, and at $R\gt 4$ the system diverges. In the plot below, you can see the behavior of $x_n$ vs $n$ for whatever value of $R$ you set in the plot above (with the slider), while changing the initial condition $x_1$. For example, try setting $R=3.8$ above. The slider below allows you to change the initial value of $x_n$ ($x_1$), and the 2 push buttons labeled $-0.001$ and $+0.001$ allows fine control at the $0.001$ level. What you can see clearly is that the behavior of the system is very sensitive to the initial conditions. This is also known as the "butterfly effect", which comes from applying this sensitivy to the weather: if a butterfly in China flips its wings or not, it could mean the difference between a hurricane on the other side of the world, or not.

$x_1 = $ 0.1


In the discussion above, we've looked at the behavior of the sequence $x_n$ as a function of $R$, and seen that the sequence either "settles down" to a single value, 2 values, a set of values, not any values, or diverges. So what is interesting is to plot the behavior of the sequence using the "settling down" (asymptotic) values, as a function of $R$. This is shown in the plot below. You can see the behavior of $x_n$ as a function of $R$, and using the line of text widges just above the plot, vary many of the parameters to see how things behave. $R$ is varied between the limits $R_s$ and $R_f$, and $x_n$ is plotted along the vertical between the limits $0$ and $x_f$, and $x_1$ starts at $x_s$. On the right, the variable $N_{pts}$ tells you the number of points along the horizontal between the limits $R_s$ and $R_f$. For each value of $R$, the program generates $N_{iter}$ values of $x_n$ (so $n$ goes from 0 to $N_{iter}$). To show the "settling down" values, the program will plot only the last fraction of the values of $x_n$ that will be plotted, $f_{iter}$, which you can change by varying $f_{iter}$. So if you set $f_{iter}$ to $0.25$, then if e.g. $N_{iter}$ is $40$ the program will plot the last $10$ values of $x_n$ (n=30-40).

The initial values in the text boxes shows a plot that has $x_n$ converging rapidly to 0.0 up until when $R\sim 1$, then $x_n$ converges rapidly to an increasing value up until around $R\sim 3$, where $x_n$ starts oscillating between 2 values (period 2). At around $R\sim 3.5$, the structure gets pretty interesting. To see more of that structure, you can set limits on the starting and ending values for $R$ by changing the values in the boxes labeled $R_s$ and $R_f$ respectively. You can also do this graphically by using the mouse to zoom in: drag an increasing green rectangle around the region of interest. The program saves each of the set of values $R_s$, $R_f$, $x_s$, and $x_f$, and stores them in an array, so you can go back to previous sets by hitting the "Back" button. It's pretty interesting to zoom in on that area where the behavior of $x_n$ bifurcates twice. What you can see is that at some point, the bifurcating becomes chaotic. Successive zooms around this area of interest shows a similar pattern again and again, no matter what scale you are on. (Note that due to things like the finite resolution of the javascript canvas and flotaing point numbers, as you zoom in you might need to increase $N_{iter}$ and $f_{iter}$ to see the pattern well.) This scale independence is an important concept, discussed below, and is characteristic of extremely non-linear chaotic systems.

There's another way to look at the equation $\ref{exn}$ graphically. That equation can be seen as a 2-step equation:

And then iterate to build up the sequence $x_n$. These kinds of recursive sequences can be graphed in what is sometimes known as a "cobweb" diagram, and that's seen in the plot to the right, below. The plot starts at a specific value of $x_0$ and $R$, drawn with a blue circle on the $x$ axis. The red line represents the curve $y=x$, and the parabola $y=xR(1-x)$ is drawn in purple. The next value, $x_1$, is calculated using the parabola,and drawn as a vertical line from $x_0$ to $x_1$. Then $y$ is stored in $x$, represented by a horizontal line line to the diagonal. And then repeat. You can click on any point in the logistics map plot on the left, and that point will be the new value for $x_0$ and $R$, redrawing the cobweb plot. If you click on a point in the region $R<1$, the sequence converges to $0$, and the cobweb plot shows this. For $1\lt R\lt 3$, the cobweb plot converges to a finite number, shown as the intersection between the parabola and the straight line. The number of steps before the convergence gives you an idea of how fast it converges. Between $R=3$, the first bifurcation, and the second bifurcation at around $=3.45$, the 2 convergence values are shown as the darker blue squares on the plot. Again, the number of squares before convergence is telling you how fast the sequence converges. Notice that if you click along the vertical line defined by $R\sim 3.5$,you will see 2 darker blue squares, indicating the next bifurcation, and also notice that the 2 squares are formed by a single continuous line! Past the point where the sequence becomes chaotic, the cobweb plot reflects this "chaos", or lack of convergence. Another interesting thing to do is to click on two almost successive points of the logistics map (left plot) along any vertical, which means $R$=constant. You can see the sensitivity to initial conditions in the cobweb plot - it changes drastically.
$x_{n+1} = x_n\cdot R \cdot (1-x_n)$

$N_{iter}$ $f_{iter}$ $R_s$ $R_f$ $x_s$ $x_f$ $N_{pts}$

As seen above, "period 3 implies chaos" is clear: once the oscillations go to Non-linear systems that exhibit this kind of "chaos" are all around us in nature (turbulence in general, weather being one of the main applications), and a prime attribute of the behavior of these systems is the sensitivy to initial conditions. Just like in the double pendulum!

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Fractals

Fractal geometry is both interesting and beautiful, can be extremely simple to illustrate, and as stated above, are everywhere. The main characteristic of something that has a fractal geometry is that it is scale independent. That is, no matter what scale you view it, it "looks the same", that is, it has the same general features. For instance, imagine that you wanted to measure the coastline of some island, like Iceland, as in the following 2 figures: the coastline from 1000 and 100 miles respectively. Which is which? You might use the resolution of the images to tell you the answer, but if you only looked at general features of the coastline, and how it meanders, there's not much to tell you which scale is which picture.

Fractals and 1 Dimension

Why is this called a "fractral" geometry? That story starts with a simple question: how would you measure the length of a coastline? You'd do this by taking some kind of ruler, or scale, $r$, and placing it down on the figure to cover the entire length, as in the following picture:
Then the length of the coastline is given by the number of rulers, $N$, each of length $s$, that it takes to cover all of it: $$L = N\times s\nonumber$$ Of course, this will have limited accuracy since the coastline will change direction sometimes faster than the rulers will accomodate. So if you want more accuracy, you would use smaller rulers, but then it would take more of them to cover the entire coastline: $N$ increases as $s$ decreases. The interesting thing is that as $s$ gets smaller (smaller ruler) the total length $L$ gets larger.

To see this more clearly, the figure below is from a famous curve called the "Koch curve". It's a simple construct of 4 straight lines that portion off a total width $w$ into 3 parts. Each line segment has equal length, the two with a vertical component forms 2 of the 3 sides of an equalateral triangle. If we use the scale factor $s=w/3$, the length of each of the 4 parts of the curve, then we will need $N=4$ "rulers" to measure the length, which is given by $L=N\times s=4\times w/3=4w/3$, or $4/3$ in units of the width $w$. This curve is labeled by $n=1$, which will become clear below.

When you hit the button labeled "Increase", it will take each of the 4 straight segments and exchange them for the same shape as the overall curve squeezed down onto each of the segments, so where there used to be 1 segment, there is now 4. If we also divide the scale factor $s$ by $3$, so $s\to s/3 = w/9$, we would then need $N=16$ segments to cover the entire curve. The total length is therefore given by $L=N\times s=16 \times 1/9=1.777...$ in units of $w$. This curve is labeled by $n=2$.

Keep hitting "Increase", and you will see what happens. Each time you do, $s$ is divided by $3$ and $N$ is multiplied by $4$, so $L\to L\times 4/3$: the length grows with each increase in $n$, along a straight line with slope $4/3$. (Note that after around $n=6$ or so, you won't be able to see much of a difference in the shape due to the limited resolution of whatever computer screen you are using.) This is remarkable, and it's pretty much counter-intuitive how the length grows linearly even though the change for each segment becomes infinitesimally small. The important thing here is that for a Koch curve that has infinite length ($n\to \infty$), no matter what scale you choose the shape will be the same, so the curve is scale invariant (has the same shape on all scales). This scale invariance is what makes the Koch curve fractal.

$n=$
$L/w$:

Fractal Dimensions

One usually thinks of dimensions as being described by integers. For instance, to describe to someone the location of any point $P$ on a straight line, all you need to do is agree on an "origin", and a "scale" $s$ (meters, inches, etc), and then say that you go some number $x$ of units from the origin to get to the point, which means $P = x\times s$ where $x$ can be any number, positive or negative. In fact, the line doesn't have to be straight, it can be any curve, and you still would only need a single value $x$ to find any point. That you need $1$ number means that a line or curve is 1 dimensional. Here we make a direct connection between the words "dimension" and "coordinates": the dimension is the number of coordinates needed to specify a point, and this use of dimension can be described as the "topological dimension".

For a surface like a plane you follow the same rule: specify the origin, and the scale, and then any point (labeled $P$ in the diagram) can be described by 2 numbers: an amount $x$ along the East-West direction and an amount $y$ along the North-South direction.

For a sphere, if you stand in the center, then any point $P$ on the surface is specified by 2 angles, usually defined such that the the first angle, $\theta$ (called the "polar angle") is the angle between the line drawn through the poles and center of the sphere and a line from the center to some point on the surface. The 2nd angle, $\phi$, tells you where you are along the circle that has a constant distance from the pole as the point $P$. This is shown in the figure below. $\theta$ goes from 0 to $\pi$ and $\phi$ goes from $0$ to $2\pi$ (all in radians).

So a sphere and a plane, both surfaces, are 2 dimensional (topologically) since they require coordinates with 2 numbers to describe all points on them. What we want to do is understand how the scale factor $s$ is related to what we want to measure, and consider how this changes with varying numbers of topological dimensions.

Let's start with a few easy examples. In the figure below, you will see a blue straight line of length $L$, and 4 different scale factors labeled $s_1, s_2$, etc. To calculate the length $L$ you would pick a scale factor, say $s_1$, and count how many of them ($n_1$) you would need to measure the length $L$.

If we choose $s_1$, then we would get a length given by $L=n_1 s_1$, and similarly if we choose $s_2$ as our scale, then $L=n_2 s_2$. If we divided these 2 equations and eliminate $L$, we would get $$\frac{n_1}{n_2}=\frac{s_2}{s_1}\nonumber$$

Now let's consider a surface as in the following 2 dimensional figure. The scale factors are still just line segments of some length, say $s_1$ and $s_2$. The areas $a_1$ and $a_2$ made by each scale factor is given by $a = s^2$, and the area $A$ of the figure we are trying to measure will be given by $A = na = ns^2$.

Using the same technique as above, we can measure the area $A$ using two different scale factors $s_1$ and $s_2$ and divide and get $$\frac{n_1}{n_2}=\big(\frac{s_2}{s_1}\big)^2\nonumber$$

For a volume, as in the following figure:

we would have the ratio of numbers of 3-dimensional scale volumens ($v = s^3$) given by $$\frac{n_1}{n_2}=\big(\frac{s_2}{s_1}\big)^3\nonumber$$

As you can see from these 3 examples, the number of scale factors needed to measure the $d$-dimensional shape grows as $s^d$, and this gives us a handle in determining $d$: $$d = \frac{log(n_1/n_2)}{log(s_2/s_1)} = \frac{-log(n_1/n_2)}{log(s_1/s_2)}\label{e_dim}$$ What this tells us is that we can think of the dimension as something that tells us how the measure of the extent of an object changes with a changing scale factor: if the measure changes with the scale factor $s^2$, as in the 2d figure above, then the dimension is 2. And so on. This means that we can determine the dimensionality $d$ by trying several scale factors $s$ and seeing how the number of those scale factors $n$ changes as we change $s$ and extract the fractal dimension $d$ using equation $\ref{e_dim}$.

Now that we have such a formula, let's apply it to the Koch curve, starting with the simplest version:

We want to know how the length as measured changes with changing the scale factor and using that scale factor to increase the complexity. So for the above diagram, we form two different Koch curves with 2 different scale factors that have a ratio of $s_1/s_2=3$. For the top curve, the length would be equal to $n_1=4$ times the scale factor $s_1$, and for the bottom, the length would be equal to $n_2=16$ times the scale factor $s_2$. Using equation $\ref{e_dim}$ we can calculate the fractal dimensional to be: $$d = \frac{log(n_1/n_2)}{log(s_2/s_1)} = \frac{log(4/16)}{log(1/3} = 1.262\nonumber$$ So the Koch curve has a fractal dimension of $1.262$!

Now we can extend this technique to consider shapes beyond curves. The following figure takes the Koch curve and uses it to form what is known as "Koch snowflakes". The figure on the left is the simplest - a triangle. Next to the triangle is a figure formed by taking each side of the triangle and turning it into a Koch curve. The figure on the right is the 2nd order Koch snowflake.

To extract the fractal dimension, we introduce 2 scales as in the figure below, and form triangles from each scale, and count the number of triangles it takes to tile the figure at each scale. From the figure below, the top snowflake becomes the bottom snowflake as the complexity increases. The scale factors have the ratio $s_1/s_2=3$ Using $a_1$ to measure the area of the top snowflake yields $n_1=12$, and using $a_2$ to measure the length of the area of the bottom snowflake yields $n_2=120$ (since it takes 9 of $a_2$ to make $a_1$, plus the extra 2 "lobes" per Koch curve from the increased complexity we have $n_2 = n_1*9 + 2*6 = 120$). Applying these numbers to equation $\ref{e_dim}$ gives $$d = \frac{log(n_1/n_2)}{log(s_2/s_1)} = \frac{log(12/120)}{log(1/3} = \frac{log(10)}{log(3} = 2.095\nonumber$$

The amazing thing about the Koch snowflake is that the area is finite as the complexity increaeses (it will never get bigger than the circle that encloses the simplest version of the snowflake, the one that has 3 points only made from a triangle) but the perimeter becomes infinite! Beautiful!

Another example of a figure that has a finite fractal-like area is the Serpinski gasket. The figure starts with an equalateral triangle, as in the figure below. If you hit the button labeled "Increase", it will replace the triangle with 4 triangles, but will leave out the center triangle. The total area (the red triangles) is therefore reduced by 1/4. Each time you hit "Increase", it will replace all red triangles with 3 smaller ones, again reducing the area by 1/4. Below the triangle is a table of the number of red triangles, and the area in units of the original area ($n=1$). As you can see, as you keep increasing the number of triangles, you decrease the area, which will go to $0$ asymptotically.

$n$      $A/A_0$
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To calculate the fractal dimension, just like we did for the Koch snowflake we take 2 different scales as in the figure below. The ratio of the scale factors is given by $s_1/s_2=2$. For the upper curve we need $n_1=3$ times $a_1$ to tile the area, and for the bottom we need $n_2=9$.

The fractal dimension is therefore $$d = \frac{log(n_1/n_2)}{log(s_2/s_1)} = \frac{log(3/9)}{log(1/2} = \frac{log(3)}{log(2} = 1.585\nonumber$$

It's interesting how the Koch snowflake figure has a fractal dimension $2.095$, greater than it's topological dimension 2, whereas the Serpinski gasket has a fractal dimension $1.585$, less than it's topological dimension. This must be a clue as to how to understand the fractal dimension, and it does. But it can get highly technical mathematically. Here's a way to understand it: it has to do with the self similarity and scale invariance of the figure, and especially of the boundary. Remember that the topological dimension was introduced in terms of the number of coordinate components needed to specify all of the points in the set defined by the object. And that concept gets us back to the idea of the set, and the boundary of the set. For the Koch snowflake, we showed that the boundary is infinite in the limit as the scale goes to $0$, \ whereas the area is finite, so why would it surprise you that the fractal dimension is not the same as the topological dimension? Same for the Serpinski gasket: the boundary boundary also goes to infinity as the scale goes to zero, but here the area also goes to zero, so it shouldn't be a surprise that the fractal dimension is less than the topological dimension. Anyway fractals are a bit like quantum mechanics: it gets increasingly difficult to visualize as you get into it, and you will get a headache if you keep trying!

The Mandelbrot Set

Perhaps the most famous example of a fractal is the Mandelbrot Set, which can be visualized beautifully as in the figure below. It's called a "set" because ultimately it comes down to using an iterative formula like the logistic equation $\ref{exn}$ above. The set is defined in a 2d (topologically speaking) space, represented by and $x$ and a $y$ coordinate. For each point in the space, we apply mapping formula that consists of an iterative function that keeps getting applied to the output of itself over and over. A point is in the Mandelbrot set if after some amount of iterations it converges to a finite value, and it is not in the set if it doesn't. What makes the set "Mandelbrot" is to applythe following iterative function:

As you can probably see quickly, the points around $x_p,y_p=0,0$ will obviously converge, and points far away from this origin will obviously not converge.

B&W Color

Iterations:

What people usually do is to use the mathematics of complex variables to define the mapping: define $c \equiv x_p+iy_p$ and $z_n=x_n+iy_n$ where $i=\sqrt{-1}$. Then the mapping is given by $$z_{n+1}=z_n^2+c\nonumber$$ with the convergence condition $|z_n|\lt 2$.

In the figure above, if click the "Color" radio button, it will then associate a color according to how many iterations of the mapping formula it took for the condition $|z_n|\gt 2$.

The Mandelbrot set is not stricly self similar, but it's close (aka "quasi-similar"). The apparent scale invariance of the Mandelbrot set can be seen by zooming in with the cursor: click down at a location on the map and drag to another location, you will see a box that highlights the region. When you let go, it will zoom in. For example, notice that the Mandelbrot set has a large "blob" that straddles the origin (the intersection of the $Re(z)$ and $Im(z)$ axes), and a blob to the left that starts about a third of the way to the left edge. If you start by zooming in on that left "blob", you will that blob blown up, but it will be surrounded by smaller blobs. Keep zooming in on the smaller blobs, and you will see how the pattern repeats itself at all scales.

If you keep zooming, you will find that the picture becomes less and less sharp. This is because you need more and more iterations to show convergence in fine color detail. So what you can try is to increase the number of iterations in the text window, and hit the "Draw" button, and it might do a better job. But it will also take longer, so you will have to be patient, and depending on the finite resolution of your screen, it may not improve.

The Julia Set

A variation on the Mandelbrot set is the Julia set, where here you keep the value of $c$ constant, and use the coordinate pair as the starting point instead. In the figure below, you can click on any single point in the diagram and it will redraw it using that point as the starting value for the calculations. You can play with the number of iterations by changing the value in the text widget and histting "Draw", and you will be surprised (and maybe entertained) at what a difference that makes. Also, as described below, you can also play with the color scheme.

Iterations:

$z_x$      $z_y$
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$C=c\cdot \frac{n}{N}$
$C=c\cdot \frac{\log(n)}{\log(N)}$
$\phi=2\pi \frac{n}{N}$, and $C=c\cdot\cos^2\phi$
$\phi=2\pi \frac{n}{N}$, and $C=c\cdot(\cos\phi\sin\phi+1)/2$
$C = c\cdot (N\bmod{n})/N$
$C = c\cdot \sqrt n/\sqrt N$

It is interesting to change the RGB color scheme to see what beautiful rendering we get. Here we can try different color schemes that use the value the iteration when the sequence diverges. Since RGB consists of 1 2-digit hex number ($2^8, 0-255$) per color, if we produce a number between $0$ and $c=2^8\cdot 2^8\cdot 2^8-1=16,777,216$, which is a 3 byte number, we can then use the bottom bytes for red, the next byte for green, and the next byte for blue. All we have to do then is come up with a way to generate this 24-bit number, called $C$ above. There are of course many ways to do this, but some interesting ones are presented in the table below, where you can see their effect via selection. Note that in the table, the constant $c$ is as defined above, $N$ is the maximum number of iterations, and $n$ is the number for when the sequence finally fails the convergence test.

The Barnsley Fern

One can make some amazing figures with just iterative functions and a computer, as you can see from the Mandelbrot and Julia sets above. Another popular figure is the Barnsley Fern, named after the British mathematician Michael Barnsley from his book "Fractals Everywhere". The iterative function is somewhat more complicated, but not more complex. It consists of 4 different 2-d functions $x_1-x_4$ and $y_1-y_4$ that are used as coordinates. Each coordinate is chosen (using a random number generator) so that some fraction of the time the coordinate is given by $x_1,y_1$, some fraction of the time $x_2,y_2$, and so on. This can be represented by the following 4 matrix equations, with the standard coefficients that make the Barnsley Fern:

$p_1$: $\begin{pmatrix} x_{n+1} \\ y_{n+1}\end{pmatrix}$ $=$ $\begin{pmatrix} 0 & 0 \\ 0 & 0.16 \end{pmatrix}$ $\begin{pmatrix} x_{n} \\ y_{n}\end{pmatrix}$ $+$ $\begin{pmatrix} 0 \\ 0\end{pmatrix}$
$p_2$: $\begin{pmatrix} x_{n+1} \\ y_{n+1}\end{pmatrix}$ $=$ $\begin{pmatrix} 0.85 & 0.04 \\ -0.04 & 0.85\end{pmatrix}$ $\begin{pmatrix} x_{n} \\ y_{n}\end{pmatrix}$ $+$ $\begin{pmatrix} 0 \\ 1.6\end{pmatrix}$
$p_3$: $\begin{pmatrix} x_{n+1} \\ y_{n+1}\end{pmatrix}$ $=$ $\begin{pmatrix} 0.20 & -0.26 \\ 0.23 & 0.22 \end{pmatrix}$ $\begin{pmatrix} x_{n} \\ y_{n}\end{pmatrix}$ $+$ $\begin{pmatrix} 0 \\ 1.6\end{pmatrix}$
$p_4$: $\begin{pmatrix} x_{n+1} \\ y_{n+1}\end{pmatrix}$ $=$ $\begin{pmatrix} -0.15 & 0.28 \\ 0.26 & 0.24 \end{pmatrix}$ $\begin{pmatrix} x_{n} \\ y_{n}\end{pmatrix}$ $+$ $\begin{pmatrix} 0 \\ 0.44\end{pmatrix}$
The following table summarizes the 4 equations and the coefficients, along with the probability "boundaries" that are used to determine which of the 4 equations is used to find the next value for $x$ and $y$ in the sequence.
$f_1$$f_2$$f_3$$f_4$
$x_{n+1}=$$x_n+$ $y_n$ $x_{n+1}=$$x_n+$ $y_n$ $x_{n+1}=$$x_n+$ $y_n$ $x_{n+1}=$$x_n+$ $y_n$
$y_{n+1}=$$x_n+$ $y_n$ $y_{n+1}=$$x_n+$ $y_n+$ $y_{n+1}=$$x_n+$ $y_n+$ $y_{n+1}=$$x_n+$ $y_n+$
$p\lt 0.01$$0.01\ge p\lt 0.86$ $0.86\ge p\lt 0.93$$0.93\ge p$

The miracle is that by using this set of matrix equations, determining randomly which of the 4 sets of functions to use, it forms figures like the one following. Note that you will be somewhat limited by the resolution of your device's screen. The sliders allow you to play with the 3 probabilities $p_1,p_2,p_3$ associated with the probability boundaries between the 3 sets of functions $f_1,f_2,f_3$, just to get a feel for the sensitivity to those boundaries. And you can feel free to change the coefficients as well and hit "Draw". Note that if you keep hitting "Draw", it will add to what's already been drawn.

$p_1 = $ 0.01
$p_2 = $ 0.86
$p_3 = $ 0.93

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Copyright © 2020 by Drew Baden

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